To say that Turkey or Türkiye has a long and complicated history would be a gross oversimplification at best.
The Anatolia peninsula on which modern Turkey sits has been inhabited by humans as far back as 9,500 BCE.
Since then, countless tribes, kingdoms and empires have settled, traded and fought over these strategic, fertile lands and the commercially and militarily invaluable Bosphorus Straits.
Thus, Turkey is a rich destination filled with the faded glories of ages past and the timeless architecture of still-living towns.
Whether you’re a history buff or beginner, this roughly chronological guide will take you through both Turkey’s (extremely simplified) history and the best places to visit for a feel of the respective eras.
So, strap on your time machine seatbelt, we’re going on a tour to Turkey and its history!
Prehistoric
Turkey has had evidence of human activity stretching back to 1.2 million years old. Even at this early stage, Turkey was already the stomping ground of multiple kingdoms like Hittite, Phrygia, and Assyria.
Göbekli Tepe
Aka Potbelly Hill, Göbekli Tepe is one of the most significant sites in early human history.
This is because the structures here have been dated to at least 10,000 BCE, placing it all the way back to the Neolithic era, making it the oldest human structures ever known.
But not only that, it is also a hugely important piece of the puzzle for the human transition from hunter-gatherer to settled lifestyles. Where other sites typically have signs of farming around, Göbekli Tepe lacks any such evidence, suggesting that humans started settling much earlier before farming.
Nowadays, the site is open to visitors with large, open excavation sites surrounded by raised walkways that allow you to get a commanding view.
Hattusa
As the capital of the Hittite Empire, Hattusa is a glimpse into how even prehistoric Bronze Age societies were organized and advanced for their time.
Located on rocky terrain next to a ravine, this sprawling city was once home to an impressive 50,000 people, who lived around temples, sanctuaries and palaces ringed by a formidable stone wall.
Entering Hattusa through multiple grand stone gates etched with sphinxes, lions and kings, you will across the city’s sprawling stone foundations, which once supported wooden and mud buildings that housed 50,000 people. Sadly, most of these have rotten away.
But even so, many impressive features remain such as the large green stone block dubbed the Hattusa Green Stone. Located in the foundations of the Great Temple, its smooth and distinctive appearance may have been used for religious purposes or as a foundation for a statue.
Classical/Hellenistic
This period is marked by the strong Persian, Hellenistic and Roman influences over the region as various kingdoms consolidated to become continent-spanning empires.
Mount Nemrut
Built by Antiochus I of Commagene, an Armenian kingdom, the mausoleum atop Mount Nemrut contains massive human and animal statues with their heads removed and placed all over the site.
Towering all over these is a giant mound of loose rock that is said to guard Antiochus’ tomb, with the loose rocks preventing most tomb robbers.
Whether the tomb exists or not, the statues are a marvel of classical engineering and craftsmanship, with stones weighing up to nine tons and carvings that have stood the test of time. Its syncretic blend of Greek, Persian and Anataloian religion and aesthetics also makes this site culturally significant.
Ephesus
Throughout its long history, the harbor city of Ephesus has built some of the most remarkable examples of Hellenistic, Roman and early Christian architecture in Turkey, some of which remain in shockingly good condition.
From temples where various Roman deities were worshipped, to an impressively vast ancient roman theatre where plays were once performed, visiting Ephesus will take you back to the days when it used to be one of the cultural and intellectual beacons of multiple empires.
Chief among Ephesus’ cultural relics is the Library of Celsus and its ruined but still opulent façade. Featuring defiant columns, intricate carvings and statues of deities towering up to two storeys high, this historical icon is a common stop in many itineraries.
Byzantine
The Eastern Roman Empire, more commonly known as the Byzantines, reigned between the 6th and 15th centuries as a successor to the mighty Roman Empire. Its defining architecture included jaw-droppingly massive domes and vivid murals, mosaics and frescos.
Hagia Sophia
Arguably the most famous symbol of Istanbul and perhaps Turkey itself, the Hagia Sophia was built in the 6th century under Roman times as a church.
Over the centuries, as the Roman Empire split apart, it eventually became one of the most famous churches in early Christian history, standing for almost 1,500 years as the center of the Eastern Roman Empire and the Eastern Orthodox Church.
After the conquering of Constantinople (Istanbul) by the Ottoman Empire, it was converted into a grand mosque. After a stint as a museum during the early days of the Republic of Turkey, it was reverted into a mosque as recently as 2020.
The Hagia Sophia’s most recognizable feature is its massive dome along with its four Islamic minarets. Inside, its gold-brown interior houses Christian mosaics made out of gold leaf and colored glass alongside gorgeously carved and decorated Islamic art in the form of stucco and calligraphy – both reflecting its rich history.
Seljuk
Spanning Central Asia, the Islamic Seljuk Empire was one of the Byzantine’s first and greatest rivals as they brought Turkish and Islamic influences into the region, which can be seen from their many madrasahs and mosques.
Konya
Capital of the Rum Seljuk state, Konya boasts impressive examples of Seljuk tombs, mosques and palaces.
Here, the Seljuk use of abstract, geometrical and even Baroque-like motifs is widespread in the many gateways or portals to the city’s ancient madrasahs. A prime example of this is the İnce Minareli Madrasa, which displays intricate stone patterns that stretch and entwine around its stone façade alongside floral motifs.
See also the curves and hanging stalactite patterns at the Sâhib-i Ata Complex and Karatay Madrasa for more Seljuk mastery of stone.
Sivas
As a Seljuk hub for trade and commerce, the central city of Sivas features another quirk of their architecture – the twin minarets.
These twin minarets usually guard the entrance to the city’s ancient madrasas such as the Gök Medrese or Blue Temple, which features two handsome pointed towers accented by turquoise blue highlights.
Another variation of this twin tower construction is the Çifte Minareli Medrese (literally “Twin Minaret Madrasah”), which features giant Roman-like columns as their minarets, though this one is not in Sivas, but way to the east in Erzurum.
However, arguably the most impressive portal in Sivas is at the UNESCO-recognized Great Mosque and Hospital of Divriği. Its modest façade and interior belie gorgeous gateways decorated with botanical motifs, geometry and Islamic calligraphy.
Ottoman
After conquering Constantinople or Istanbul, the Ottomans blended Turkish and Islamic influence together with Byzantine and Christian styles to create a distinctive architecture that includes domes, half-domes and the use of stone and brick. This style continues to inspire modern Turkish architecture and evolve alongside it.
Bursa
As the first capital of the Ottomans, Bursa was the birthplace of one of their most innovative legacies, a city planning system that involved establishing kulliyes or religious facilities with baths, schools, soup kitchens and other public facilities.
Over time, this would result in neighborhoods, towns and then cities being built around these religious, commercial and cultural centers.
An example of this is the Orhan Mosque, which was built with a mosque, madrasah, baths, soup kitchens and even traveller’s inns called caravanserai. Surviving through wars, earthquakes and reconstructions, its mosque, one bath and inn still stand proud as part of Bursa’s Ottoman heritage.
Blue Mosque
Right across from the iconic Hagia Sophia is another of Istanbul’s grand monuments – the Blue Mosque.
Built towards the second half of the empire during Ahmed I’s rule, this massive monument boasts multiple layers of domes and six minarets, creating an instantly recognizable façade of the Istanbul skyline.
However, most visitors hold their praise for the mosque’s majestic interior, which is overwhelmingly bathed in the color blue. This is all thanks to blue tinted tiles highlighting Islamic calligraphy, Iznik tiles with blue flower motifs and stained-glass windows streaming serene blue light into the interior.
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